Introduction: Nation Building in the Balkans
In the long 19th century, Europe was marked by the rise of nation-states. While France, Germany, and Italy redefined their borders through wars and negotiations, the formation of national identity on the Balkans occurred under particularly bloody circumstances. In the shadow of the crumbling Ottoman Empire, states like Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria emerged—often accompanied by ethnic cleansing. The Muslim Albanians were particularly affected, with their expulsion between 1830 and 1878 marking a lasting rupture in their history.
- The Beginning: Autonomy of Serbia and the First Wave of Expulsions (1830–1876)
Background
After the Second Serbian Uprising (1815), Serbia was recognized in 1830 as an autonomous principality within the Ottoman Empire. Led by Prince Miloš Obrenović (reign: 1815–1839, 1858–1860), Serbia aimed for an ethnically Serbian-Orthodox identity. Muslims—especially those of Albanian origin—were now seen as foreign elements.
Early Measures
- In 1832, Prince Miloš announced that all Albanians in Serbia who had not fought against the Ottomans should be expelled.
- Local commander Milosav Zdravković was ordered to “buy” Albanian houses to force their residents to leave.
- In practice, this meant forced sales under threat of violence, expropriation, pogroms, and systematic expulsion.
Demographic Structure
Before the expulsions, non-Serbs made up around 15% of the population:
- Albanians (mainly Muslims, some Catholic)
- Roma
- Vlachs (Timok Romanians)
- Turks
Albanians were particularly concentrated in western Serbia and the Morava Valley.
Numbers and Facts
- Between 1830 and 1876, an estimated 150,000 Albanians were expelled from the Principality of Serbia.
- This nearly equated to the complete removal of the Muslim population from the young Serbian state.
- Their houses were destroyed, mosques burned or converted into churches.
The Serbian-Ottoman War and the Second Wave of Expulsions (1877–1878)
War as a Means of “Completion”
When Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire in 1876, it was not only about national liberation but also territorial expansion to the south. Supported by Russia, Serbia attacked the Sanjak of Niš in 1877—an area with a high Albanian-Muslim population.
Sanjak of Niš – Multicultural Heritage, Military Target
- Cities like Niš, Prokuplje, Leskovac, Kuršumlija, Vranje were centers of Albanian culture.
- The Serbian army under General Jovan Belimarković marched in—accompanied by Christian militias systematically burning villages, murdering or expelling residents.
- Entire villages like Gjakova e Toplicës disappeared from the map.
Methods of Expulsion
- Rapes, public executions, looting
- Forced flight in winter with no food or shelter
- Destruction of religious sites (e.g., mosques in Kuršumlija, Leskovac)
- In many cases, targeted massacres—such as in Toplica, where dozens of civilians were burned in mosques.
Victim Numbers and Refugee Movements
How many were expelled?
- At least 60,000–130,000 Albanians were expelled from the Sanjak of Niš, Pirot, Leskovac, and surrounding areas in 1877/78.
- The total number of expelled Albanians between 1830 and 1878 was up to 280,000.
How many died?
- Most death tolls are estimates, as many people died on their flight.
- Between 5,000 and 15,000 Albanians are believed to have been killed—by massacres, hunger, or freezing.
- Many survivors died of disease in refugee camps in Kosovo and Macedonia.
The Congress of Berlin 1878: International Legitimization of Injustice
Conference of the Great Powers
The Congress of Berlin (June–July 1878)—organized by Otto von Bismarck—was meant to revise the “Treaty of San Stefano.” Among other things:
- Serbia’s borders were expanded, especially with the addition of the Sanjak of Niš.
- Montenegro was granted recognized territorial gains.
What was missing? The Albanians.
- No Albanian representative was invited.
- Albanian petitions were ignored.
- Bismarck declared, “There is no Albanian nation.”
Result:
- Ethnic cleansing was internationally endorsed.
- No right to return or compensation was granted.
The Muhaxhirë – The Albanian Exile in Kosovo and Macedonia
The expelled were known as Muhaxhirë (Albanian for “expelled, refugees”).
Goals of Flight:
- Kosovo (Pristina, Ferizaj, Gjilan, Prizren)
- Macedonia (Skopje, Tetovo, Kumanovo)
- Northern Albania (Shkodra, Tropoja)
Living Conditions:
- Lack of food, shelter, medical care
- Many died of hypothermia, hunger, and epidemics
- Families lived in tents or with relatives, sometimes for years
Consequences:
- Strengthened Albanian national consciousness
- Many Muhaxhirë participated in the League of Prizren (1878)
- They continue to shape the social and political structure of Kosovo today.
Key Figures
- Miloš Obrenović – Prince of Serbia, initiated first forced relocations
- Jovan Ristić – Serbian Foreign Minister, architect of Balkan policy
- Jovan Belimarković – General, responsible for ethnic cleansing in Niš
- Sami Frashëri – Albanian intellectual, criticized the events and demanded national rights
- Ali Hadri – Historian, first systematically estimated victim numbers
Conclusion: A Suppressed Catastrophe
The expulsion of Albanians between 1830 and 1878 was not a marginal occurrence but a central part of Serbian state-building policy. It was strategically planned, brutally executed, and internationally endorsed. Hundreds of thousands lost their homes—thousands their lives. The long-term consequences are still felt today: in the collective memory of the Albanian people, in the ethno-political conflict over Kosovo—and in the open wounds of a region that has never truly healed.
